Nutrition

Aug 02, 2021

The 21 best low carb vegetables

Vegetables are low in calories but rich in vitamins, minerals and other important nutrients. In addition, they are low in carbohydrates and high in fiber, making them ideal for a low carb diet.

The definition of low carb varies greatly. Some consider anything under 150 grams of usable carbohydrates per day to be low carb, while others draw the line at just 20 grams.

But regardless of whether you're eating low carb or not, it's always a good idea to eat more vegetables.

Here's a list of the 21 best low-carb vegetables to include in your diet.

1. bell peppers

Bell peppers are amazingly nutritious. They contain antioxidants known as carotenoids, which can reduce inflammation, lower cancer risk and protect cholesterol and fat from oxidative damage (1).

One cup (150 grams) of diced red bell bell pepper provides 3 grams of usable carbohydrates, and 3 grams of fiber.

This amount of bell bell pepper provides 93% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin A and 317% of the recommended daily intake of vitamin C, which is often deficient in low-carbohydrate diets.

Green, orange and yellow peppers have similar nutrient profiles, although their antioxidant content may vary.

Summary: Peppers have an anti-inflammatory effect and provide large amounts of vitamins A and C. One serving (150 grams) provides 6 grams of usable carbohydrates.

2. broccoli

Broccoli is a true superfood. Broccoli belongs to the cruciferous vegetable family, which also includes cabbage, Brussels sprouts, radishes and kale.

Studies show that broccoli can reduce insulin resistance in type 2 diabetics. It is also believed to protect against certain cancers, including prostate cancer (4, 5, 6). One cup (91 grams) of raw broccoli provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates and 3 grams of fiber. In addition, this amount provides 100% of the recommended daily intake of vitamins C and K.

Summary: Broccoli provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams, is rich in vitamins C and K, may reduce insulin resistance and may help prevent cancer.

3. asparagus

Asparagus is a delicious summer vegetable. One cup (180 grams) of cooked asparagus provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates and 4 grams of fiber. Asparagus is also a good source of vitamins A, C and K.

Studies conducted in test tubes have concluded that asparagus may help inhibit the growth of certain cancers, and studies conducted in mice suggest that asparagus may help protect brain health and reduce anxiety (7, 8, 9).

Summary: Asparagus contains 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams. It is a good source of several vitamins and may protect against certain cancers.

4. mushrooms

Mushrooms are extremely low in carbohydrates. One cup (70 grams) of raw mushrooms provides only 1 gram of usable carbohydrates and 1 gram of fiber. In addition, mushrooms have been shown to have strong anti-inflammatory properties (10).

In a study of men suffering from metabolic syndrome who ate 100 grams of white button mushrooms for 16 weeks, the subjects significantly improved their anti-inflammatory markers and antioxidant levels (11).

Summary: Mushrooms contain less than 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per gram. They can reduce inflammation in people with metabolic syndrome.

5. zucchini

Zucchini is a popular vegetable that belongs to the pumpkin family. One cup of raw zucchini (124 grams) provides 3 grams of usable carbohydrates and 1 gram of fiber.

Zucchini is a good source of vitamin C and the amount listed provides 35% of the recommended daily intake.

Summary: Courgettes contain about 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams and are rich in vitamin C.

6. spinach

Spinach is a green leafy vegetable that has a whole range of health benefits. Scientific research reports that spinach can help reduce DNA damage. It can also protect heart health and may reduce the risk of certain eye diseases such as cataracts and macular degeneration (12, 13, 14).

In addition, spinach is an excellent source of certain vitamins and minerals. One cup (180 grams) of cooked spinach provides ten times the daily requirement of vitamin K.

Spinach is low in carbohydrates, but the carbohydrates become more concentrated when the leaves are cooked and lose volume. One cup of cooked spinach provides 3 grams of usable carbohydrates and 4 grams of fiber, while one cup of raw spinach contains only about 1 gram of usable carbohydrates.

Summary: Cooked spinach provides about 3 grams of usable carbohydrates per 200 grams, is rich in vitamin K and helps protect eye health.

7. avocados

Even though avocados are technically a fruit, they are typically eaten as a vegetable. They are high in fat and contain few digestible carbohydrates. One cup (150 grams) of diced avocados provides 3 grams of usable carbohydrates and 10 grams of fiber.

Avocados are rich in oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid that has numerous health benefits. Small studies have found that avocados can help lower LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels (15, 16).

They are also a good source of vitamin C, folate and potassium

Even though avocados are a fairly high-calorie food, they can still help with weight management. In one study, subjects who added half an avocado to their lunch reported that they felt fuller and had fewer cravings to eat over the next 5 hours.

Summary: Avocados provide 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams. They promote satiety and are rich in heart-healthy fats and fiber.

8. cauliflower

Cauliflower is one of the most versatile and popular low-carb vegetables. It has a mild flavor and can be used as a substitute for potatoes, rice and other higher carbohydrate foods.

One cup (100 grams) of raw cauliflower provides 2 grams of usable carbohydrates and 3 grams of fiber. It is also rich in vitamin K and 100 grams provides 77% of the daily requirement of vitamin C.

Like other cruciferous vegetables, cauliflower has been linked to a reduced risk of heart disease and cancer (17, 18).

Summary: Cauliflower contains 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams, is rich in vitamins K and C, and may help protect against heart disease and cancer.

9. green beans

Like beans and lentils, green beans belong to the legume family. However, they contain significantly less carbohydrates than most other legumes. One cup (125 grams) of cooked green beans provides 6 grams of usable carbohydrates and 4 grams of fiber.

Green beans are rich in chlorophyll, which animal studies suggest may help protect against cancer (19).

In addition, green beans contain carotenoids, which have been linked to improved brain function during aging (20).

Summary: Green beans provide 5 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams. They are rich in antioxidants and may protect the brain.

10. leaf lettuce

Leaf lettuce is one of the lowest carbohydrate vegetables. One cup (50 grams) of lettuce provides 1 gram of usable carbohydrates and 1 gram of fiber.

Depending on the type, lettuce can also be a good source of certain vitamins. Romaine lettuce and dark green varieties are rich in vitamins A, C and K. They are also rich in folate, which helps to lower homocysteine levels - a compound that has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease.

A study of 37 women showed that consuming folate-rich foods over a 5-week period reduced homocysteine levels by 13% compared to a diet low in folate (21).

Summary: Leaf lettuce contains only 2 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams. It is rich in certain vitamins, including folate, which may reduce the risk of heart disease.

11 Garlic

Garlic is known for its positive effects on immune function. Studies have found that it may increase resistance to colds and lower blood pressure (22, 23).

Although garlic is not necessarily low in carbohydrates per 100 grams, the amount consumed at one time is so small due to its strong flavor that it provides few usable carbohydrates. One clove of garlic (3 grams) provides less than 1 gram of usable carbohydrates.

Summary: Garlic provides less than 1 gram of usable carbohydrates per clove. It can potentially lower blood pressure and improve immune function.

12. kale

Kale is a vegetable that is extremely nutrient dense. It is packed with antioxidants including quercetin and kaempferol.

These antioxidants have been shown to lower blood pressure and also help protect against heart disease, type 2 diabetes and other conditions (24, 25, 26). One cup (67 grams) of raw kale provides 6 grams of digestible carbohydrates and 1 gram of fiber. This amount also provides an astonishing 206% of the daily requirement of vitamin A and 134% of the daily requirement of vitamin C.

A high intake of vitamin C has been shown to improve immune function and enhance the skin's ability to fight harmful free radicals that can accelerate the aging process (27, 28).

Summary: Kale contains 6 grams of usable carbohydrates per serving. It is rich in antioxidants and provides over 100 percent of the daily requirement of vitamins A and C per 100 grams.

13 Cucumber

Cucumbers are low in carbohydrates and refreshing. One cup of diced cucumber (104 grams) provides less than 4 grams of carbohydrates and less than 1 gram of fiber.

Although cucumbers are not particularly rich in vitamins and fiber, they do contain a compound called cucurbitacin E, which may have some health benefits.

Test-tube and animal studies suggest that this compound may have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer effects and may protect brain health (29, 30, 31).

Summary: Cucumber provides less than 4 grams of carbohydrates per 100 grams. It may protect against cancer and promote brain health.

14 Brussels sprouts

Brussels sprouts are also a cruciferous vegetable. Half a cup (78 grams) of cooked Brussels sprouts provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates and 2 grams of fiber.

This amount also provides 80% of the daily requirement of vitamin C and 137 grams of the daily requirement of vitamin K.

In addition, controlled human studies suggest that eating Brussels sprouts may reduce risk factors for cancer, including colorectal cancer (32).

Summary: Brussels sprouts provide 5 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams. They are rich in vitamins C and K and may help reduce the risk of cancer.

15 Celery

Celery is extremely low in usable carbohydrates. One cup (100 grams) of celery provides only 1 gram of usable carbohydrates and 2 grams of fiber. Celery is also a good source of vitamin K and provides 37% of the daily requirement of this vitamin.

In addition, celery contains luteolin, an antioxidant that shows potential when it comes to preventing and treating cancer (33).

Summary: 100 grams of celery provides only 1 gram of usable carbohydrates. Celery also contains luteolin, which may have anti-cancer effects.

16 Tomatoes

Tomatoes have a number of impressive health benefits. Like avocados, tomatoes are technically fruits, but are usually eaten as vegetables. Tomatoes are low in usable carbohydrates. One cup (150 grams) of cherry tomatoes provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates and 2 grams of fiber.

Tomatoes are a good source of vitamins A, C and K. In addition, they are rich in potassium, which may help lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of stroke (34).

Tomatoes have also been shown to strengthen the endothelial cells that line the arteries and their high lycopene content may help prevent prostate cancer (35, 36).

Cooking tomatoes increases their lycopene content and the addition of fats such as olive oil during cooking has been shown to increase the absorption of lycopene (37).

Summary: Tomatoes contain 4 grams of usable carbohydrates per 150 gram serving and are rich in vitamins and potassium. They can help protect heart health and reduce the risk of cancer.

17. radishes

One cup (116 grams) of sliced radishes provides 2 grams of usable carbohydrates and 2 grams of fiber.

Radishes are rich in vitamin C and one cup provides 29% of the daily requirement of this vitamin. In addition, radishes may reduce the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women by altering the way the body metabolizes estrogen (38).

Summary: Radishes contain 2 grams of digestible carbohydrates and may reduce the risk of breast cancer in older women.

18 Onions

Onions are a nutritious vegetable with an intense flavor. Although they are not really very low in carbohydrates by weight, they are usually consumed in small amounts due to their intense flavor.

Half a cup (58 grams) of diced onions provide 5 grams of usable carbohydrates and 1 gram of fiber. Onions are rich in the antioxidant quercetin, which may lower blood pressure (39).

A study of overweight and obese women suffering from polycystic ovary syndrome found that eating red onions can lower LDL cholesterol levels (40).

Summary: Onions provide 9 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams and may help lower blood pressure and LDL cholesterol levels.

19 Eggplant

Eggplant is a vegetable that is used in many Italian and Asian dishes.

One cup (100 grams) of sliced and cooked eggplant provides 6 grams of carbohydrates and 2 grams of fiber.

Eggplant is not particularly rich in vitamins and minerals, but research conducted with animals suggests that it may help lower cholesterol levels and improve markers of heart health (41).

It also contains an antioxidant known as nasunin in the purple pigment of its skin. Scientists report that nasunin helps reduce free radicals and may protect brain health (42).

Summary: Eggplant provides 6 grams of usable carbohydrates per 100 grams and may help protect heart and brain health.

20 Cabbage

Cabbage has some impressive health benefits. As a member of the cruciferous vegetable family, it may help reduce the risk of certain cancers, including esophageal and stomach cancer (43, 44).

One cup of sliced raw cabbage (89 grams) provides 2 grams of usable carbohydrates and 3 grams of fiber. This amount also provides 54% of the daily requirement of vitamin C and 85% of the daily requirement of vitamin K.

Summary: Cabbage provides about 2 grams of carbohydrates per 100 grams. It is rich in vitamin C and K and may reduce the risk of certain cancers.

21 Artichokes

Artichokes are tasty and nutritious. A medium-sized artichoke (120 grams) provides 4 grams of usable carbohydrates and 10 grams of fiber. Part of the fiber is inulin, which acts as a prebiotic and serves as food for the "good" intestinal bacteria (45).

Artichokes could also protect heart health. A study has shown that consuming artichoke juice can reduce inflammatory markers and improve the function of blood vessels in people with high cholesterol levels (46).

Summary: Artichokes contain just under 4 grams of carbohydrates per 100 grams and could help improve digestive and heart health.

Conclusion

There are many tasty vegetables that can be incorporated into a low-carb diet.

In addition, they are low in carbohydrates and calories and could reduce the risk of many diseases and improve overall health and well-being.

References:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12115659
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12115659
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Source: https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/21-best-low-carb-vegetables#section22

Jul 28, 2021

A closer look at popular diet supplements

There are many different weight loss solutions on the market. This includes a variety of pills, medications and natural supplements. All of these products claim to be able to help you lose weight or at least make weight loss easier in combination with other methods.

These products usually work through one or more of the following mechanisms:

Reduction in appetite, making you feel fuller, which results in you eating fewer calories.
Reduced absorption of nutrients such as fat or carbohydrates, allowing your body to utilize fewer calories
Increased fat burning, allowing you to burn more calories Here is a selection of the most popular fat loss products and supplements and their scientific reviews:

Garcinia Cambogia Extract

Garcinia Cambogia became world famous in 2012 after it was featured on a popular American television program.

This product is a small green fruit shaped like a pumpkin. The skin of this fruit contains hydroxycitric acid (HCA), which is the active ingredient marketed as a diet aid.

How does Garcinia Cambogia extract work?

Research conducted on animals shows that it can inhibit the fat-producing enzyme in the body while increasing serotonin levels, which can potentially reduce hunger and cravings (1, 2). In addition, there is evidence that the hydroxycitric acid it contains can stabilize blood sugar levels and counteract sharp fluctuations in insulin and blood sugar levels.

How effective is Garcinia Cambogia extract?

The scientific study situation is mixed. While a study of 130 subjects found no difference between a placebo and a Garcinia Cambogia extract in terms of body weight and body fat percentage between the groups, a review of 12 studies concluded that Garcinia Cambogia extracts caused a significant weight loss of 2 pounds on average over the course of the study (3, 4).

Potential side effects: There are no reports of serious side effects, only isolated reports of mild digestive problems.

Hydroxycut

Hydroxycut is one of the best known weight loss products and has been successfully marketed in various formulas for over a decade.

How does Hydroxycut work?

Depending on the formula, Hydroxycut contains a mixture of several ingredients, including caffeine and various plant extracts, which are intended to promote weight loss via different mechanisms.

How effective is Hydroxycut?

One study found that the then-current version of Hydroxycut resulted in a weight loss of 21 pounds within 3 months, which is quite a lot compared to other products (5). However, it should be kept in mind that the formula of the product has changed several times over the years.

Potential side effects: People who are sensitive to caffeine may experience side effects such as restlessness, tremors, nausea, diarrhea and irritability.

Caffeine

Caffeine is the most commonly consumed psychoactive substance in the world. It occurs naturally in coffee, green tea and dark chocolate and is added to many processed foods and drinks. In addition, caffeine is an integral part of many weight loss products as it can stimulate the metabolism and thus increase calorie consumption.

How does caffeine work?

Studies have shown that caffeine can temporarily increase the metabolic rate by 3 to 11% and increase fat burning by up to 29% (6, 7). In addition, it causes a preferential use of fat for the purpose of energizing the body.

How effective is caffeine?

A number of human studies have shown that caffeine can cause moderate weight loss (8, 9).

Potential side effects: In some people, caffeine in large amounts can cause side effects such as restlessness, tremors, nausea, diarrhea and irritability. Caffeine can also be addictive and reduce sleep quality. In addition to this, a habituation effect occurs over time, which reduces its effectiveness.

Optimal sources of caffeine: Caffeine does not necessarily have to be taken in the form of pure caffeine in tablet form or in the form of other caffeine supplements. The best sources are coffee and green tea, which are also rich in antioxidants and have other health benefits.

Orlistat (Alli)

Orlistat is an over-the-counter medication marketed under the name Alli.

How does orlistat work?

Orlistat works by inhibiting the breakdown of fat into fatty acids in the digestive tract, resulting in 20 to 25% of the fat consumed being excreted undigested.

How effective is Orlistat?

According to a large-scale study review of 11 human studies, orlistat increased weight loss by 6 pounds during the study period compared to a placebo (10).

In addition, orlistat has been shown to slightly lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes by 37% (11, 12).

Potential side effects: Orlistat may have some side effects, which include soft stools, oily stools, bloating, frequent bowel movements that are difficult to control, and others. It may also contribute to a deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K. It is often recommended to use orlistat in combination with a low-fat diet to minimize side effects.

Interestingly, it has been shown that a low-carbohydrate diet (without medication) is just as effective as a combination of orlistat with a low-fat diet (13).

Raspberry ketones

Raspberry ketones are a substance found in raspberries and are responsible for their characteristic odor. A synthetic version of bilberry ketones is marketed as a weight loss supplement.

How do bilberry ketones work?

In isolated rat cells, raspberry ketones increase the breakdown of fat and increase levels of the hormone adiponectin, which is associated with weight loss (14).

How effective are bilberry ketones?

No human studies have yet investigated the effects of bilberry ketones in humans, but a study conducted with rats and relatively high doses of these ketones showed that they reduced weight gain (15).

Potential side effects: Blueberry ketones can cause belching with a blueberry odor.

Green coffee bean extract

Green coffee beans are nothing more than normal coffee beans that have not been roasted. They contain two substances that are believed to aid weight loss: Caffeine and chlorogenic acid.

How does green coffee bean extract work?

Caffeine can help increase fat burning and chlorogenic acid can slow down the breakdown of carbohydrates in the digestive tract.

How effective is green coffee bean extract?

Several studies have shown that green coffee bean extract can support weight loss (16, 17).

A review of 3 studies found that subjects who used green coffee bean extract lost an average of 5.4 pounds more weight over the course of the study compared to subjects who received only a placebo (18).

Green coffee bean extract can also help lower blood sugar levels and lower blood pressure. It is also rich in antioxidants (19, 20, 21).

Potential side effects: Green coffee bean extract can cause the same side effects as caffeine. The chlorogenic acid it contains can also cause diarrhea and some people are allergic to green coffee beans.

Glucomannan

Glucomannan is a dietary fiber found in the root of the konjac plant.

How does glucomannan work?

Glucomannan absorbs water and forms a kind of gel in the stomach, which fills the stomach. By filling the stomach, it promotes a feeling of satiety and helps to reduce calorie intake (22).

How effective is glucomannan

Three human studies found that glucomannan, in combination with a healthy diet, can help you lose 8 to 10 pounds in 5 weeks (23).

In addition, glucomannan is a healthy dietary fiber that feeds good gut bacteria and promotes their growth. Glucomannan can also lower blood pressure, cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood and helps with constipation (24, 25).

Glucomannan should be consumed about 30 minutes before meals with a glass of water.

Potential side effects: Glucomannan can cause a bloated feeling, flatulence and soft stools and can also interfere with the absorption of some medications if taken at the same time.

8 Meratrim

Meratrim is a relatively new dietary product. It is a combination of two plant extracts designed to change the metabolism of fat cells.

How does Meratrim work?

According to the manufacturer, Meratrim is designed to make it harder for fat cells to multiply, reduce the amount of fat that fat cells absorb from the bloodstream and help burn stored fat.

How effective is Meratrim?

To date, only one trial of Meratrim has been conducted, in which 100 obese volunteers were given either Meratrim or a placebo and followed a strict 2000 kcal diet (26).

After 8 weeks, the Meratrim group had lost 11 pounds in weight and 11.9 cm in waist circumference. In addition, their subjective quality of life had improved, while their blood glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels had decreased.

Potential side effects: No side effects are known to date.

Green tea extract

Green tea extract is a popular ingredient in many weight loss supplements. This is because studies have shown that the primary antioxidant it contains - EGCG - supports fat burning.

How does green tea extract work?

Green tea extract is believed to increase the activity of norepinephrine - a hormone that helps burn fat (27).

How effective are green tea extracts?

Numerous studies have shown that green tea extract can increase fat burning and cause fat loss - especially in the abdominal area (28, 29). All the positive effects of green tea extract are of course also present in green tea.

Potential side effects: Green tea extract is generally well tolerated. However, it does contain some caffeine and may cause side effects in people who are sensitive to caffeine.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)

Conjugated linoleic acid has been a popular fat loss supplement for many years. It is one of the healthier trans fats and occurs naturally in some animal foods such as butter and cheese.

How does CLA work?

Conjugated linoleic acid can reduce appetite, boost metabolism and stimulate the breakdown of body fat (30, 31).

How effective is CLA?

In a review of 18 scientific studies, conjugated linoleic acid caused weight loss of 0.2 pounds per week over a period of up to 6 months (32).

According to another study review from 2012, CLA was able to produce a weight loss of about 3 pounds compared to a placebo (33).

Potential side effects: Conjugated linoleic acid can cause various digestive discomforts and could contribute to fatty liver, insulin resistance and increased inflammation in the long term.

Forskolin

Forskolin is an extract from a plant in the mint family that is claimed to be effective for weight loss.

How does forskolin work?

Forskolin is believed to increase the levels of a compound called cAMP in cells, which can stimulate fat burning (34).

How effective is forskolin?

A study of 30 overweight and obese men showed that forskolin reduced body fat and increased muscle mass without changing body weight (35). Another study with 23 overweight women, however, did not observe any effects (36).

Potential side effects: No data on risks or side effects are available.

Prescription drugs

In addition to the active ingredients and products described, there are a number of prescription diet medications.

However, according to a 2014 study, even prescription diet drugs are not as effective as many would like. On average, they can help you lose 3 to 9% of your body weight compared to a placebo (37).

However, this is only true when they are combined with a healthy weight loss diet. On their own, they are ineffective and are not a real solution to obesity. Not to mention the many possible side effects.

Take Home Message

Of the active ingredients described here, the following are the clear winners with the best scientific background:

Weight loss: Glucomannan,CLA and Orlistat (Alli)
Increased fat burning: caffeine and green tea extract

These supplements can be useful, although reducing carbohydrates and increasing protein intake are still the best options. However, these dietary strategies may work better in combination with supplements, which can give your metabolism a bit of a boost and help shed a few extra pounds.

References:

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Source: https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/12-weight-loss-pills-reviewed#section14

Jul 14, 2021

How much sodium (salt) per day is good (or bad) for you?

Salt has played a role in our diet for thousands of years. The Egyptians used it in religious rituals and traded it. The Greeks bought slaves with it. The Romans paid their soldiers with it (and the English word "salary" comes from the Roman word "salarium" which stood for the salt ration). European plutocracies were based on salt and today it is found in countless foods.

Salt was once a coveted resource and today it is nothing more than a boring condiment.

Such is life.

Salt - the most important mineral nutrient in human history - has even become less than a simple condiment.

Salt is one of the most demonized nutrients in our modern diet.

Health authorities have been warning us for decades about the (alleged) dangers of salt, which include an increased risk of heart disease and strokes.

However, recent research casts doubt on these claims and suggests that salt may not be as harmful as previously thought.

In this we will look at the following:

What sodium is
Why salt is (apparently) bad
How much sodium you should eat
How much sodium is too much
How you can control your sodium intake
And more

Let's get started.

What is sodium?

Sodium is a mineral and is also known as an electrolyte - a substance that increases the electrical conductivity of a liquid when dissolved in it.

Electrolytes are essential to human life because our bodies are made up of trillions of cells that rely on electrical signals to function.

These signals must pass through fluids to reach their destinations and these fluids require electrolytes to carry these signals.

Sodium is one of the most important electrolytes in our bodies. It works together with potassium to power a "pump" that is essential for maintaining the action potential of cells.

This cellular pump is always active, pumping sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell. It serves to ensure that cells contain relatively large amounts of potassium ions but low amounts of sodium ions.

The cell uses this pump to maintain a balance of sodium, potassium and fluid in its walls.

Sodium also helps to regulate blood volume and is involved in muscle and nerve function.

Are salt and sodium bad for you?

Our collective fear of salt began in the early 20th century when French doctors reported that 6 of their hypertensive patients were following a high-salt diet.

These fears were reinforced in the 1970s when Lewis Dahl of Brookhaven National Laboratory was able to induce high blood pressure in rats by feeding them a high-sodium diet.

Dahl also concluded that countries with a high-salt diet also had higher rates of high blood pressure and strokes.

However, his findings and the underpinnings of the fear of sodium in general are beginning to fall apart. More recent research suggests that this elemental compound is not as harmful as previously thought.

It began with an extensive review of the sodium literature published in 2003, which concluded (1):

"There is limited evidence for benefits of long-term reduction in salt intake." 8 years later, a meta-analysis of 7 studies involving more than 6,250 subjects supported these results and concluded that there is no evidence that reducing salt intake is an effective measure to reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke or death in people with normal or high blood pressure (2).

Further research published in 2015 found that lower salt consumption may even be associated with a higher risk of dying from heart disease (3).

What's going on here?

Well, we now know that genetic predisposition and cultural factors come into play. Some people are more sensitive to sodium than others.

We also know that low sodium intake can increase the risk of different types of diseases and dysfunctions. These include, among others:

An increase in levels of bad LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels in the blood (5, 6)
Increased insulin resistance (7).
Type 2 diabetes

And when we talk about sodium intake and health, we also need to talk about potassium and the research that shows that the ratio of sodium to potassium intake is very important.

Officials recommend a daily intake of 4.7 grams of potassium per day, whereas in 2010, potassium intake in the Western world was just 2.64 grams per day. This makes inadequate potassium intake one of the most widespread nutrient deficiencies in the Western world (9).

Not surprisingly, the best sources of potassium are the types of foods that many people avoid - fruits and vegetables. This is another argument in favor of maintaining a nutritious diet.

It's important to know this because scientific research shows that sodium intake per se is probably not nearly as harmful as an imbalance of sodium and potassium. A study conducted by scientists at the Center for Disease Control at Harvard University found that people with the highest sodium to potassium ratio were twice as likely to die from a heart attack and 50% more likely to die from all causes compared to people with the lowest ratio (10).

So the bottom line is this:

As long as you're not eating a lot of convenience foods and highly processed foods, and you don't tend to oversalt every meal you eat, and as long as you make sure you're getting enough potassium, you're unlikely to run into any sodium-related problems.

How much sodium should you consume per day?

Sodium is a lot like saturated fat - we thought it caused heart disease, but now we're being proven wrong.

Some people would have you believe that both foods have been given complete absolution and that you can eat as much of them as you want without fear of harming your health.

I disagree with this.

As for saturated fat, prominent nutrition and cardiology researchers remain of the opinion that there is a strong link between high saturated fat intake and heart disease and that we should follow the generally accepted dietary guidelines for saturated fat intake (11, 12) until we know more.

Similarly, until you know for sure that high sodium intake won't raise your blood pressure, it's better to stay on the safe side and follow the official recommendations for sodium intake (about 2.3 grams of sodium per day and 1.5 grams for people of African-American descent and people with high blood pressure, diabetes and chronic kidney disease, and people over 51 years of age).

However, it is also important to remember that people who sweat regularly may need more sodium (13) to compensate for losses through sweat. In this case, 3.5 to 4 grams of sodium may make sense.

Most people don't pay attention to their sodium intake and don't know the sodium levels of different foods.

Well, we can start with salt, which contains 2.3 grams of sodium per teaspoon (and now you may realize why many people eat more sodium than they should).

In addition, the following foods are known for their high sodium content (and are very popular in the Western diet):

Bread made from yeast dough
pizza
pasta dishes
cold cuts

If you want to get an overview of your sodium intake, numerous nutrient calculators available on the internet can help you, and you shouldn't overlook the salt you add to your food afterwards.

How much sodium should you consume per day during a weight loss diet?

You've probably heard that your sodium intake can affect your weight loss.

This is true.

Sodium pulls water into cells, which is why high sodium consumption can cause a sharp increase in water retention (14, 15). You've probably experienced this the morning after eating a large, salty cheat meal the day before. This is also the reason why water retention decreases when you limit your sodium intake.

Potassium has the opposite effect on cellular fluid levels. While sodium pulls water into the cell, potassium pumps water out of the cell, which explains why restricting potassium intake can worsen water retention (and why increasing potassium intake can reduce water retention).

So if you want to prevent unexplained weight loss plateaus while dieting, make sure you're keeping an eye on your sodium and potassium intake.

How to reduce your sodium intake

So you've analyzed your sodium intake and you've realized that you need to reduce your sodium intake and increase your potassium intake. You can achieve this quite easily.

1. reduce your consumption of salt and certain spices

Many foods naturally contain small amounts of sodium, but most of the sodium in our diet comes from salt, which is about 40% sodium and about 60% chloride.

You should therefore use salt sparingly and use a potassium-based substitute when needed.

Also watch out for spice mixes such as chili and pizza spices. These can contain a lot of salt.

2. pay attention to the sodium content of canned foods and ready meals

Many canned foods and ready meals are overloaded with salt.

3. avoid sausage and smoked meat products

These foods also tend to be high in salt.

4. look at food labels

Many foods now list the salt content per portion or per 100 grams.

5. be careful with sauces and dressings

Many sauces and dressings such as soy sauce, Worcestershire and salad dressings are very high in sodium.

6 Cheese can also be a problem

Just 30 grams of cheese often contains 500 mg of sodium.

7. include more potassium-rich foods in your diet< Popular sources of potassium include:

Beans (2 to 3 grams of potassium per cup)
Dark green leafy vegetables (500 to 1,500 mg of potassium per cup)
Bananas (400 to 500 mg of potassium per medium banana)
Potatoes (900 mg of potassium per medium-sized potato)
Pumpkin (100 to 500 mg of potassium per medium-sized pumpkin)
Yoghurt (250 to 400 mg of potassium per cup)
Salmon (100 mg of potassium per 30 grams)
Avocado (1 gram of potassium per avocado)
Mushrooms (300 to 400 mg per cup)

If you don't feel like monitoring anything else in your diet, I can understand that. However, you don't have to control your sodium and potassium intake forever.

Instead, I would recommend that you monitor your potassium and sodium intake temporarily and see what works best and what doesn't. Then you can use your common sense to maintain good habits and keep moving forward.

(You can also supplement potassium, of course, but you should know exactly how to dose it correctly, as too much potassium intake can have negative health effects).

And yes, all of this means that your sodium and potassium intake will fluctuate and occasionally hit peaks and troughs, but that's perfectly fine.

The goal is not to achieve an absolutely perfect intake every day. Rather, it's about getting it right more often than wrong.

The bottom line on "proper sodium intake"

When it comes to dieting, most "in the know" pay careful attention to their macronutrient intake, but don't really care about micronutrients like sodium, potassium and the many other things the body needs to function properly. While this is better than complete nutritional ignorance, it still leaves a lot to be desired.

I used to be no different myself. However, once I diversified my food choices and included significantly more fruit, vegetables and other superfoods in my diet, the differences were astonishing.

While this didn't affect my body composition, it definitely improved my energy levels, mood and cognitive abilities.

I've also found that I need less sleep to function optimally and on top of that, my body seems to recover faster after exercise and other physical activities.

If you've only ever paid attention to your macronutrients, try the following for a month and see what changes:

Eat three cups of vegetables a day. You get bonus points for green leafy vegetables, red and orange vegetables and beans. If you want, you can also eat starchy vegetables like potatoes or sweet potatoes.
Eat two cups of fruit a day. Make sure you also eat colorful fruits like berries, plums and cherries.
Consume the majority of your non-fruit and vegetable carbohydrates in the form of relatively unprocessed foods. These include whole grains, seeds, nuts and dairy products.
Keep your sodium and potassium intake within acceptable ranges. You'll be surprised how much better you'll feel.

References:

Source: https://legionathletics.com/how-much-sodium-per-day/

By Michael Matthews

Jul 02, 2021

Water retention and weight loss: can you lose fat but not weight?

If you want to know how water retention can prevent weight loss and even make you look fatter (and what you can do about it), then you should read this article.

There are many ways in which you can mess up a well-planned diet. For example, you can:

Accidentally eating more calories than you should.
You can exercise too little.
You can overestimate the amount of energy you burn each day.
You can overdo it with excessive cheat meals.

These mistakes are common and easy to fix. You go through your checklist, recognize what you're doing wrong and quickly get back on track.

What's not quite so trivial are those unexplained fat loss plateaus.

You know...your macronutrients are right on target...you exercise plenty...you calculate your energy consumption accurately...and you refrain from unnecessary and excessive binge eating...and yet you don't see any progress in the mirror or on the scales.

If you are stuck on such a plateau, then you should not do what most people do in such a situation: exercise more and eat less. This will only make things worse.

The culprit in this situation is probably water retention and if you don't know how to deal with it properly, it can lead to a lot of trouble and frustration.

This article will help you to deal with this problem properly. By the end of the article, you will know the causes of water retention, why so many people who want to lose weight struggle with it and ways to get everything back to normal and continue losing weight.

But let's start at the beginning.

When a weight loss plateau is not a fat loss plateau

In a perfect world, you would lose weight in a steady and orderly fashion. We would stick to our exercise and diet plan and wake up a little lighter and leaner every day.

The weeks would fly by and before we knew it, we'd be the owners of a perfect six-pack.

Well, at least that's what we would dream of. However, when we wake up, we have to accept that weight loss in the real world is quite capricious and unpredictable.

You may lose a pound or two every week for a few weeks, but then for no apparent reason see no change at all for a few weeks, as if your body has suddenly forgotten how to lose fat.

And then - just before you're desperate enough to engage in gluten-free or Paleo voodoo (or real voodoo) - you lose four pounds overnight.

What the heck is going on here?

How is it that you stick to a calorie deficit and nothing changes for weeks and then, just as mysteriously, there's a dramatic shift in weight in the right direction?

Well, the answer is simple.

The fat loss you achieve by following your diet correctly can be masked both on the scales and in the mirror by extra water that your body is retaining. Many people have heard this before, but they don't realize how significant these effects can be. It is not uncommon to lose 3 to 4 pounds of fat over the course of 3 to 4 weeks without even realizing it due to increased water retention.

Fat loss only becomes visible when the excess water is excreted from the body, creating the illusion of extreme fat loss in a short period of time.

But why does your body store more water when you diet? And what can you do about it?

Let's find out.

What a World War II starvation experiment can tell us about water retention.

During World War II, Dr. Ancel Keys conducted a groundbreaking scientific study during which 36 men intentionally subjected themselves to an extreme starvation diet of 1,500 kcal per day with hours of hard work over a period of 6 months.

This study became known as the "Minnesota Starvation Experiment" and the purpose of this research was to learn more about the physiological and psychological effects of starvation and to devise a program to help starving POWs return to normal nutrition and metabolic health.

One of the many interesting findings of this study was that weight loss occurred in an almost linear fashion during the first few weeks. The men lost about 2 pounds per week, week after week. After a while, however, the weight loss became erratic and erratic.

Body weight stagnated for several weeks, followed by major spurts of weight loss (3 pounds and more) virtually overnight.

As it is physically impossible to lose several pounds overnight, the question arises as to how such a thing is possible.

The scientists investigated the phenomenon a little more closely and found the answer: water retention.

The test subjects lost fat continuously, although their weight did not change because their bodies retained more water.

This only became apparent when the excess water was excreted again, creating the illusion of rapid weight loss.

Bodybuilders know this phenomenon only too well.

I would like to repeat something important at this point:

The calorie deficit continually reduced body fat levels, but the reduction in body weight was often more than offset by increased water retention.

The reason I want to draw attention to this phenomenon is that many "gurus" like to claim that this experiment proves that calorie-based dieting doesn't work because the subjects didn't lose weight despite being in a calorie deficit. This is, of course, complete nonsense.

You may now be wondering what causes these spurts of weight loss.

Sometimes this happens more or less by chance, but scientists have found that a reliable trigger is a dramatic increase in calorie intake.

For example, during the experiment, a 2,300 kcal meal was served to celebrate the halfway point of the study and the scientists noted that many of the men woke up several times during the following night to go to the bathroom and were several pounds lighter the next morning than the day before.

If you've ever dieted to achieve an extremely low body fat percentage (7% body fat or less for men and 16% or less for women), then you may have experienced something similar after a refeed.

But why is this the case? What is happening on a physiological level?

The answer has to do with the hormone cortisol, which your body produces in response to stress.

Scientific research shows that a prolonged calorie deficit dramatically increases cortisol levels (1). This has a number of undesirable effects on the body, including increased water retention (2).

And this is exactly what happened during the Minnesota Starving Experiment. The combination of very little food and a lot of physical labor increased cortisol levels, which led to increased water retention.

(This is also the reason that people who put themselves through extreme starvation diets and exercise a lot tend to struggle the most with water retention).

Scientists have found that the "feast" that led to precipitous weight loss during the experiment dramatically lowered the subjects' cortisol levels, which explains the heavy water retention.

This is also the reason why a refeed day often produces a surge in weight loss. And this is also the reason why weight loss often continues after a phase of "reverse dieting".

How to lose water weight

If you've followed the article carefully up to this point, you may have already extrapolated a few tips to reduce water retention.

Don't overdo it with the calorie deficit
Don't overdo it with hours and hours of cardio training per week
Eat larger amounts of food occasionally

And as it turns out, these are indeed effective strategies for reducing water retention because they lower cortisol levels.

Let's take a closer look at these strategies - and some other ways to reduce water retention.

Don't be too aggressive with your calorie deficit

If you want to lose fat fast but not muscle, then your calorie deficit needs to be large - but not too large.

There are a number of reasons not to overdo it, one of which is that too large a calorie deficit can lead to increased water retention.

To avoid this, your calorie deficit should be between 20 and 25%.

Don't overdo it with the training

Yes, this is a weight loss article telling you to eat more and exercise less, because if you are trying to lose weight but retain a lot of water, you can benefit from both.

During a diet phase, I recommend no more than 3 to 5 hours of training with weights and 1 to 2 hours of cardio per week.

This is enough to burn large amounts of calories while maintaining your muscle mass and minimizing water retention.

And don't forget your off-loading weeks.

Plan cheat days/cheat meals

A large increase in calorie intake can stimulate a large reduction in water weight, which is one of the reasons I recommend regular cheat meals while dieting.

You may need to adjust your sodium and potassium intake

So far we haven't talked about how sodium and potassium intake can affect fluid levels in the body.

Sodium is a mineral that brings water into the cells, which is why consuming large amounts of sodium can lead to severe water retention (3, 4).

You've probably experienced this yourself the morning after eating a large salty meal at a restaurant the night before.

For this reason, water retention decreases when you reduce your sodium intake.

Potassium is another mineral that has the opposite effect on cellular fluid levels. While sodium transports water into the cells, potassium transports water out of the cells.

This is the reason why scientific research shows that restricting potassium intake can increase water retention (5).

Most people's diets are high in sodium and quite low in potassium. If you want to check how you are doing, you can use a nutrient calculator. Don't forget how much extra salt you use (one teaspoon of salt provides about 2.3 grams of salt).

Most likely your sodium intake is above the official recommendation of 2.3 grams per day (although this is 1.5 grams for people with high blood pressure, people with chronic kidney problems and people over 51).

And your potassium intake is probably below the recommendation of 4.7 grams per day. If this is the case, you're not alone - inadequate potassium intake is the most common nutrient deficiency in the Western world.

This mineral imbalance contributes to water retention, but it's far worse than that.

A Harvard University study found that people with the highest sodium to potassium ratio were twice as likely to die from a heart attack and 50% more likely to die from all causes compared to people with the lowest ratio (6).

The bottom line is that people whose diets are very high in sodium and very low in potassium are playing with fire.

(I should note, however, that people who sweat regularly may need more sodium to compensate for losses through sweat. Here, 3.5 to 4 grams per day may be appropriate).

Here are a few good rules of thumb to keep your sodium intake under control:

Watch the sodium/salt content of prepared foods and canned foods, as they are often packed with sodium and preservatives.
Avoid canned sausages for the same reasons.
Reduce your consumption of salt and salty spices. Use salt sparingly and use a potassium-based salt substitute.
Pay attention to sauces and salad dressings, as these are also often very high in salt.
Cheese can also be a problem. 100 grams of hard cheese can provide 300mg of sodium.

The best way to increase your potassium intake is to include potassium-rich foods in your diet. These include, among others:

Beans
Green leafy vegetables
bananas
potatoes
yoghurt
Salmon
avocados
mushrooms

And if you're worried about having to plan everything in your diet in the future, rest assured - you don't have to monitor your potassium and sodium intake forever.

Instead, start by reviewing what works and what doesn't and then just use your common sense approach to maintain good habits.

This means that your sodium and potassium intake will fluctuate somewhat, and occasionally there may be greater fluctuations. But as long as your intake is stable and in the right range most of the time, you'll be fine.

Take time to relax

You can reduce your cortisol levels by allowing yourself some time to relax each day. This includes, among other things:

Listening to music (7)
Drinking tea (8)
Taking a nap (9)
Treat yourself to a massage (10)

Make sure you get enough sleep

Quality sleep is something that is becoming increasingly rare these days thanks to long working hours, TV, video games and other distractions that keep us up late at night.

Another reason to get enough sleep is that too little sleep and rest increases cortisol levels (11), which, as you now know, exacerbates water retention.

To prevent this, you should try to get 7 to 8 hours of sleep.

Drink more water

Doctors recommend a fluid intake in the range of 3 to 4 liters of water per day and even if we already consume part of this through food, we still need to drink several liters of water per day.

The bottom line on water retention and weight loss

If you're watching your calorie intake, following a sensible exercise program, swallowing diet pills and powders and still mysteriously not losing weight...

...then you're probably dealing with water retention.

Don't try to fight fire with fire by further reducing your calorie intake and increasing exercise.

Instead, try following the advice in this article and the scales and mirror will be your best friends again in no time.

References:

Source: https://www.muscleforlife.com/water-retention-and-weight-loss/

By Michael Matthews

Jun 16, 2021

18 science-based ways to reduce hunger and appetite

To lose weight, you generally need to reduce your daily calorie intake. Unfortunately, a weight loss diet often leads to increased hunger and appetite. This can make it extremely difficult to lose weight and keep the new weight off.

Here is a list of 18 science-based ways to reduce excessive hunger and appetite.

1. eat enough protein

Adding more protein to your diet can help increase satiety, which leads to you eating less at your next meal, which in turn helps with fat loss (1).

One weight loss study compared two breakfast options that provided the same amount of calories: one consisted of eggs, the other of bagels. Subjects who ate eggs for breakfast lost 65% more weight and 16% more body fat during the eight-week study (2).

In addition to this, a high protein intake could help prevent muscle loss when calories are reduced for weight loss (3).

A protein intake of 20 to 30% of your daily calorie intake seems to give the best results according to studies (3).

2. choose high-fiber foods

A higher fiber intake stretches the stomach, slows the rate of gastric emptying and influences the release of satiety hormones (4).

In addition, fiber can ferment in the intestine. This produces short-chain fatty acids, which helps to further increase the feeling of satiety (5).

In fact, a recent study review reported that adding high-fiber beans, peas and lentils to meals increased satiety by 31% compared to non-legume based meals.

Fiber-rich whole grains can also help reduce hunger and increase satiety.

Eating 14 grams of fiber per day can reduce calorie intake by up to 10%. Over the course of 16 weeks, this can lead to a weight loss of up to 1.9 kilos (7).

More recent studies have observed less dramatic results. This could be related to the different types of dietary fiber studied. More viscous types of fiber such as pectin, beta glucan and guar gum appear to be more satiating than less viscous fibers (8).

Furthermore, few adverse effects are associated with a high-fiber diet. High-fiber foods often contain many other beneficial nutrients including vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and healthy plant compounds (9).

For all these reasons, a healthy diet that includes adequate amounts of fruits, vegetables, beans, nuts and seeds can promote not only weight loss but also long-term health.

3. favor solid foods over liquid foods

Calories in solid form and calories in liquid form can have different effects on appetite.

A recent study review found that people who ate a solid snack were 38% less likely than those who ate a liquid snack to eat more at their next meal (10).

In a second study, subjects who ate a semi-solid snack reported a lower desire to eat and a greater feeling of fullness compared to those who ate a liquid snack (11).

Solid foods require more chewing, which gives the feeling of fullness more time to reach the brain (12).

Scientists also believe that the extra chewing allows solid foods to stay in contact with the taste buds longer, which can also promote satiety (13).

4 Drink coffee

Coffee has many benefits for health and athletic performance - and can also help reduce appetite.

Scientific research shows that coffee increases the release of peptide YY (PYY) (14). This hormone is released in the digestive tract in response to the consumption of food and promotes a feeling of fullness.

Scientists believe that PYY levels play an important role in determining how much you are likely to eat (15).

Interestingly, decaffeinated coffee may produce the strongest reduction in hunger, with effects lasting for up to 3 hours after consumption (16).

However, more studies are needed to say exactly how this works.

5 Drink plenty of water

Drinking water can help reduce the hunger you feel before meals. It can also increase the feeling of fullness after a meal and promote weight loss (17).

In fact, studies show that people who drank two glasses of water immediately before a meal ate 22% less than those who did not drink water (18). Scientists believe that about 500 ml of water is enough to stretch the stomach sufficiently to send satiety signals to the brain (18).

Water is also known to pass through the stomach quickly. For this tip to work, it's best to drink water as close to a meal as possible.

Interestingly, soup right before a meal seems to have the same effect. Researchers observed that consuming a bowl of soup immediately before a meal reduced hunger and lowered total calorie intake from the meal by about 100 (19).

6. eat consciously

Under normal circumstances, your brain knows whether you are hungry or full. Eating quickly or eating when you're distracted can make it harder for your brain to recognize these signals.

Solve this problem by eliminating distractions and focusing on the food in front of you - a key aspect of mindful eating.

Scientific research shows that mindful eating can help you experience more pleasure when eating. It can also help you focus on quality rather than quantity and reduce overeating or uncontrolled eating (20).

There also seems to be a link between hunger, satiety and what your eyes see.

One experiment offered study participants two identical milkshakes. One was labeled a "620 kcal indulgence" while the other was labeled a "120 kcal light diet". Even though both groups consumed the same number of calories, hunger hormone levels dropped in those who believed they were drinking the high-calorie shake (21).

Thus, believing that a drink contains more calories can activate the areas of the brain associated with satiety (22).

So how full you feel can depend on what you see and paying attention to what you eat can be very useful.

7. enjoy dark chocolate

It is believed that the bitter taste of dark chocolate can help reduce appetite and alleviate cravings for sweets (23).

Scientists also believe that the stearic acid contained in dark chocolate can help to slow down digestion and thereby further increase the feeling of satiety (24). Interestingly, even the simple smell of dark chocolate could have the same effect.

One study observed that simply smelling 85% dark chocolate reduced both appetite and hunger hormones as much as eating the chocolate (25).

Nevertheless, further studies are needed to investigate the effects of dark chocolate on satiety.

8. eat some ginger

Ginger is associated with many health benefits. This includes reducing nausea, inflammation and blood sugar levels.

Interestingly, recent research adds another benefit to this list: a reduction in hunger.

One study found that consuming 2 grams of ginger powder dissolved in hot water at breakfast reduced the hunger that study participants felt after a meal (26).

However, this study was small and further human studies are needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

9. spice up your meals

Ginger might not be the only spice that reduces hunger.

A recent study review looked at the effects of capsaicin, which is found in chili peppers, and capsiate, which is found in paprika. This study found that both compounds can help reduce hunger and increase satiety (27).

In addition, the ability of these compounds to generate heat may also increase the number of calories burned after a meal (27).

However, these effects have not been observed in all studies and remain small. In addition, people who eat these foods frequently may develop a habituation over time.

10. eat from smaller plates

Reducing the size of your eating utensils can help you to subconsciously reduce your portion size. This will most likely help you to consume less food without feeling deprived (28).

Interestingly, this effect can fool even the most conscious eater. For example, one study found that even dieters subconsciously consumed 31% more ice cream when they were given sufficiently large bowls of ice cream (29).

Another study reported that subjects who helped themselves to snacks from large bowls ate 142 kcal more than those who ate from smaller bowls (30).

11. use a larger fork

The size of your cutlery could have a dramatic effect on how much food you need to fill you up.

One study observed that subjects who used larger forks ate 10% less than those who ate their meals with a smaller fork (31).

The researchers concluded that small forks may make people feel that they are not making as much progress in satisfying their hunger, leading them to eat more.

It should be noted that this effect does not apply to the size of all utensils. Larger ladles can increase the amount of food eaten per meal by up to 14.5% (29).

12. sports training

Exercise training is believed to reduce the activation of brain regions associated with food cravings, which may result in less motivation to eat (32).

Exercise can also reduce levels of hunger hormones while increasing feelings of satiety (33).

Scientific research shows that aerobic exercise and resistance training are equally effective in reducing hormone levels and the size of meals eaten after exercise (34).

13. lose fat around the midsection

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a hormone that affects appetite and energy balance. It is believed that higher levels of NPY can increase appetite and even alter the percentage of calories stored as fat (45).

Interestingly, scientists have found that body fat - and specifically body fat around the organs - can increase the production of NPY (36).

Based on this observation, losing fat around the midsection could help reduce appetite and hunger.

14 Make sure you get enough sleep

Getting enough sleep can also help you reduce hunger and protect against weight gain.

Studies show that too little sleep can increase hunger and appetite by up to 24% and reduce levels of some satiety hormones by up to 26% (37).

Scientific research also shows that individuals who slept less than seven hours a night rated their satiety levels 26% lower after breakfast (40).

It's worth noting that several studies have linked insufficient sleep - generally defined as less than six hours per night - with up to 55% higher risk of obesity (41).

15 Reduce your stress

Excessive stress is known to increase levels of the hormone cortisol. Although this effect can vary between individuals, increased cortisol levels are generally associated with increased food cravings and an increased drive to eat (41).

Stress can also reduce levels of peptide YY (PYY) - a satiety hormone (42). In a recent experiment, subjects consumed an average of 22% more calories after a stressful test than after a stress-free version of the same test (43).

Finding ways to lower your stress levels could not only help you reduce your hunger, but also reduce your risk of obesity and depression (44).

16 Eat omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids - especially the variants found in fish and algae oil - have the ability to increase levels of the satiety hormone (45).

A diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids may also reduce satiety after meals when calories are restricted for weight loss (46).

So far, these effects have only been observed in overweight and obese subjects. Further research is needed to find out if this also applies to lean people.

17. choose high protein snacks

Snacking is a matter of individual preference. If it is part of your daily routine, then you should choose snacks that are high in protein rather than fat.

Protein-rich snacks can increase satiety and reduce the total calorie intake at the next meal.

For example, a high-protein yogurt reduces hunger more effectively than high-fat crackers or a high-fat chocolate snack (47).

High-protein yogurt eaten in the afternoon could also help you eat about 100 kcal less at dinner than after the other two snacks. (47).

18 Visualize eating the foods you crave

According to some scientists, simply visualizing eating the food you crave can reduce the desire to eat it.

In one experiment, 51 subjects first imagined eating either 3 or 33 M&Ms before being given access to a bowl of the candy. Those who imagined they had eaten more M&Ms ate on average 60% less candy (48).

The scientists observed the same effect when they conducted the experiment with cheese instead of M&Ms.

It seems that the visualization exercise tricks the mind into believing that you have already eaten the foods you want, which significantly reduces your cravings for those foods.